The effects of lead are the same whether it enters the body through breathing or swallowing. Lead can affect almost every organ and system in your body. The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system, both in adults and children. Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system. It may also cause weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can severely damage the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. High level exposure in men can damage the organs responsible for sperm production.
We have no conclusive proof that lead causes cancer in humans. Kidney tumors have developed in rats and mice that had been given large doses of some kind of lead compounds. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that lead and lead compounds are reasonably anticipated to be human carcinogens and the EPA has determined that lead is a probable human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that inorganic lead is probably carcinogenic to humans and that there is insufficient information to determine whether organic lead compounds will cause cancer in humans.
Small children can be exposed by eating lead-based paint chips, chewing on objects painted with lead-based paint, or swallowing house dust or soil that contains lead.
Children are more vulnerable to lead poisoning than adults. A child who swallows large amounts of lead may develop blood anemia, severe stomachache, muscle weakness, and brain damage. If a child swallows smaller amounts of lead, much less severe effects on blood and brain function may occur. Even at much lower levels of exposure, lead can affect a child’s mental and physical growth.
Exposure to lead is more dangerous for young and unborn children. Unborn children can be exposed to lead through their mothers. Harmful effects include premature births, smaller babies, decreased mental ability in the infant, learning difficulties, and reduced growth in young children. These effects are more common if the mother or baby was exposed to high levels of lead. Some of these effects may persist beyond childhood.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends that states test children at ages 1 and 2 years. Children should be tested at ages 3–6 years if they have never been tested for lead, if they receive services from public assistance programs for the poor such as Medicaid or the Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants, and Children, if they live in a building or frequently visit a house built before 1950; if they visit a home (house or apartment) built before 1978 that has been recently remodeled; and/or if they have a brother, sister, or playmate who has had lead poisoning. CDC considers a blood lead level of 10 μg/dL to be a level of concern for children.
EPA limits lead in drinking water to 15 μg per liter.
Some individuals exposed to very high levels of manganese for long periods of time in their work developed mental and emotional disturbances and slow and clumsy body movements. This combination of symptoms is a disease called "manganism." Workers usually do not develop symptoms of manganism unless they have been exposed to manganese for many months or years. Manganism occurs because too much manganese injures a part of the brain that helps control body movements.
Exposure to high levels of airborne manganese, such as in a manganese foundry or battery plant, can affect motor skills such as holding one's hand steady, performing fast hand movements, and maintaining balance. Exposure to high levels of the metal may also cause respiratory problems and sexual dysfunction.
There are no human cancer data available for manganese. Exposure to high levels of manganese in food resulted in a slightly increased incidence of pancreatic tumors in male rats and thyroid tumors in male and female mice.
The EPA has determined that manganese is not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.
The EPA has set a non-enforceable guideline for the level of manganese in drinking water at 0.05 milligrams per liter (0.05 mg/L).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a limit of 5 milligrams manganese per cubic meter (5 mg/m3) of workplace air for the average amount of manganese during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
The National Research Council has recommended safe and adequate daily intake levels for manganese that range from 0.3 to 1 mg/day for children up to 1 year, 1 to 2 mg/day for children up to age 10, and 2 to 5 mg/day for children 10 and older.
Breathing high levels of inorganic arsenic can give you a sore throat or irritated lungs.
Ingesting very high levels of arsenic can result in death. Exposure to lower levels can cause nausea and vomiting, decreased production of red and white blood cells, abnormal heart rhythm, damage to blood vessels, and a sensation of “pins and needles” in hands and feet.
Ingesting or breathing low levels of inorganic arsenic for a long time can cause a darkening of the skin and the appearance of small “corns” or “warts” on the palms, soles, and torso.
Skin contact with inorganic arsenic may cause redness and swelling.
Almost nothing is known regarding health effects of organic arsenic compounds in humans. Studies in animals show that some simple organic arsenic compounds are less toxic than inorganic forms. Ingestion of methyl and dimethyl compounds can cause diarrhea and damage to the kidneys.
Several studies have shown that ingestion of inorganic arsenic can increase the risk of skin cancer and cancer in the liver, bladder, and lungs. Inhalation of inorganic arsenic can cause increased risk of lung cancer. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the EPA have determined that inorganic arsenic is a known human carcinogen. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that inorganic arsenic is carcinogenic to humans.
The EPA has set limits on the amount of arsenic that industrial sources can release to the environment and has restricted or cancelled many of the uses of arsenic in pesticides. EPA has set a limit of 0.01 parts per million (ppm) for arsenic in drinking water.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 10 micrograms of arsenic per cubic meter of workplace air (10 μg/m3) for 8 hour shifts and 40 hour work weeks.
Breathing high levels of cadmium severely damages the lungs and can cause death. Eating food or drinking water with very high levels severely irritates the stomach, leading to vomiting and diarrhea. Long-term exposure to lower levels of cadmium in air, food, or water leads to a buildup of cadmium in the kidneys and possible kidney disease. Other long-term effects are lung damage and fragile bones.
Animals given cadmium in food or water had high blood pressure, iron-poor blood, liver disease, and nerve or brain damage.
We don't know if humans get any of these diseases from eating or drinking cadmium. Skin contact with cadmium is not known to cause health effects in humans or animals.
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that cadmium and cadmium compounds may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens.
The EPA has set a limit of 5 parts of cadmium per billion parts of drinking water (5 ppb). EPA doesn't allow cadmium in pesticides.
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) limits the amount of cadmium in food colors to 15 parts per million (15 ppm).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits workplace air to 100 micrograms cadmium per cubic meter (100 µg/m3) as cadmium fumes and 200 µg cadmium/m3 as cadmium dust.
The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury. Methylmercury and metallic mercury vapors are more harmful than other forms, because more mercury in these forms reaches the brain. Exposure to high levels of metallic, inorganic, or organic mercury can permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing fetus. Effects on brain functioning may result in irritability, shyness, tremors, changes in vision or hearing, and memory problems.
Short-term exposure to high levels of metallic mercury vapors may cause effects including lung damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, increases in blood pressure or heart rate, skin rashes, and eye irritation.
There are inadequate human cancer data available for all forms of mercury. Mercuric chloride has caused increases in several types of tumors in rats and mice, and methylmercury has caused kidney tumors in male mice. The EPA has determined that mercuric chloride and methylmercury are possible human carcinogens.
The EPA has set a limit of 2 parts of mercury per billion parts of drinking water (2 ppb).
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has set a maximum permissible level of 1 part of methylmercury in a million parts of seafood (1 ppm).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set limits of 0.1 milligram of organic mercury per cubic meter of workplace air (0.1 mg/m3) and 0.05 mg/m3 of metallic mercury vapor for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks.
The most common harmful health effect of nickel in humans is an allergic reaction. Approximately 10-20% of the population is sensitive to nickel. People can become sensitive to nickel when jewelry or other things containing it are in direct contact with the skin for a long time. Once a person is sensitized to nickel, further contact with the metal may produce a reaction. The most common reaction is a skin rash at the site of contact. The skin rash may also occur at a site away from the site of contact. Less frequently, some people who are sensitive to nickel have asthma attacks following exposure to nickel. Some sensitized people react when they consume food or water containing nickel or breathe dust containing it.
People working in nickel refineries or nickel-processing plants have experienced chronic bronchitis and reduced lung function. These persons breathed amounts of nickel much higher than levels found normally in the environment. Workers who drank water containing high amounts of nickel had stomach ache and suffered adverse effects to their blood and kidneys.
Damage to the lung and nasal cavity has been observed in rats and mice breathing nickel compounds. Eating or drinking large amounts of nickel has caused lung disease in dogs and rats and has affected the stomach, blood, liver, kidneys, and immune system in rats and mice, as well as their reproduction and development.
Cancers of the lung and nasal sinus have resulted when workers breathed dust containing high levels of nickel compounds while working in nickel refineries or nickel processing plants. The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that nickel metal may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen and that nickel compounds are known human carcinogens. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that some nickel compounds are carcinogenic to humans and that metallic nickel may possibly be carcinogenic to humans. The EPA has determined that nickel refinery dust and nickel subsulfide are human carcinogens.
The EPA recommends that drinking water should contain no more than 0.1 milligrams of nickel per liter of water (0.1 mg/L).
To protect workers, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a limit of 1 mg of nickel per cubic meter of air (1 mg/m3) for metallic nickel and nickel compounds in workplace air during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek
The health effects of the different barium compounds depend on how well the compound dissolves in water or in the stomach contents. Barium compounds that do not dissolve well, such as barium sulfate, are not generally harmful.
Barium has been found to potentially cause gastrointestinal disturbances and muscular weakness when people are exposed to it at levels above the EPA drinking water standards for relatively short periods of time. Some people who eat or drink amounts of barium above background levels found in food and water for a short period may experience vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, difficulties in breathing, increased or decreased blood pressure, numbness around the face, and muscle weakness. Eating or drinking very large amounts of barium compounds that easily dissolve can cause changes in heart rhythm or paralysis and possibly death. Animals that drank barium over long periods had damage to the kidneys, decreases in body weight, and some died.
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have not classified barium as to its carcinogenicity. The EPA has determined that barium is not likely to be carcinogenic to humans following ingestion and that there is insufficient information to determine whether it will be carcinogenic to humans following inhalation exposure.
The EPA has set a limit of 2.0 milligrams of barium per liter of drinking water (2.0 mg/L), which is the same as 2 ppm.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) of 0.5 milligrams of soluble barium compounds per cubic meter of workplace air (0.5 mg/m3) for 8 hour shifts and 40 hour work weeks. The OSHA limits for barium sulfate dust are 15 mg/m3 of total dust and 5 mg/m3 for respirable fraction.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs) of 0.5 mg/m3 for soluble barium compounds. The NIOSH has set RELs of 10 mg/m3 (total dust) for barium sulfate and 5 mg/m3 (respirable fraction).
Beryllium can be harmful if you breathe it. The effects depend on how much you are exposed to and for how long. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 1000 µg/m3), an acute condition can result. This condition resembles pneumonia and is called acute beryllium disease Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage.
Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction in the respiratory system. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.5 µg/m3). This disease can make you feel weak and tired, and can cause difficulty in breathing. It can also result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m3).
Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause rashes or ulcers.
Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing lung cancer in people.
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have determined that beryllium is a human carcinogen. The EPA has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. EPA has estimated that lifetime exposure to 0.04 µg/m3 beryllium can result in a one in a thousand chance of developing cancer.
The EPA restricts the amount of beryllium that industries may release into the air to 0.01 µg/m3, averaged over a 30-day period.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets a limit of 2 µg/m3 of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift.
Chromium(III) is an essential nutrient that helps the body use sugar, protein, and fat.
Breathing high levels of chromium(VI) can cause irritation to the nose, such as runny nose, nosebleeds, and ulcers and holes in the nasal septum.
Ingesting large amounts of chromium(VI) can cause stomach upsets and ulcers, convulsions, kidney and liver damage, and even death.
Skin contact with certain chromium(VI) compounds can cause skin ulcers. Some people are extremely sensitive to chromium(VI) or chromium(III). Allergic reactions consisting of severe redness and swelling of the skin have been noted.
Several studies have shown that chromium(VI) compounds can increase the risk of lung cancer. Animal studies have also shown an increased risk of cancer.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has determined that chromium(VI) is a human carcinogen.
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that certain chromium(VI) compounds are known to cause cancer in humans.
The EPA has determined that chromium(VI) in air is a human carcinogen.
EPA has set a limit of 100 µg chromium(III) and chromium(VI) per liter of drinking water (100 µg/L).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set limits of 500 µg water soluble chromium(III) compounds per cubic meter of workplace air (500 µg/m3), 1,000 µg/m3 for metallic chromium(0) and insoluble chromium compounds, and 52 µg/m3 for chromium(VI) compounds for 8-hour work shifts and 40-hour work weeks.
Everyone must absorb small amounts of copper every day because copper is essential for good health. High levels of copper can be harmful. Breathing high levels of copper can cause irritation of your nose and throat. Ingesting high levels of copper can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Very-high doses of copper can cause damage to your liver and kidneys, and can even cause death.
We do not know whether copper can cause cancer in humans. The EPA has determined that copper is not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.
The EPA requires that levels of copper in drinking water be less than 1.3 mg of copper per one liter of drinking water (1.3 mg/L).
The U.S. Department of Agriculture has set the recommended daily allowance for copper at 900 micrograms of copper per day (μg/day) for people older than eight years old.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires that levels of copper in the air in workplaces not exceed 0.1 mg of copper fumes per cubic meter of air (0.1 mg/m3) and 1.0 mg/m3 for copper dusts.
Exposure to high levels of vanadium can cause harmful health effects. The major effects from breathing high levels of vanadium are on the lungs, throat, and eyes. Workers who breathed it for short and long periods sometimes had lung irritation, coughing, wheezing, chest pain, runny nose, and a sore throat. These effects stopped soon after they stopped breathing the contaminated air. Similar effects have been observed in animal studies. No other significant health effects of vanadium have been found in people.
We do not know the health effects in people of ingesting vanadium. Animals that ingested very large doses have died. Lower, but still high levels of vanadium in the water of pregnant animals resulted in minor birth defects. Some animals that breathed or ingested vanadium over a long term had minor kidney and liver changes.
The amounts of vanadium given in these animal studies that resulted in harmful effects are much higher than those likely to occur in the environment.
The Department of Health and Human Services, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have not classified vanadium as to its human carcinogenicity.
No human studies are available on the carcinogenicity of vanadium. No increase in tumors was noted in a long-term animal study where the animals were exposed to vanadium in the drinking water.
The EPA requires discharges or spills of 1,000 pounds or more of vanadium into the environment to be reported.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set an exposure limit of 0.05 milligrams per cubic meter (0.05 mg/m³) for vanadium pentoxide dust and 0.1 mg/m³ for vanadium pentoxide fumes in workplace air for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has recommended an occupational exposure limit of 0.05 mg/m³ for vanadium pentoxide.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has recommended that 35 mg/m³ of vanadium be considered immediately dangerous to life and health. This is the exposure level of a chemical that is likely to cause permanent health problems or death.
Zinc is an essential element in our diet. Too little zinc can cause problems, but too much zinc is also harmful.
Harmful effects generally begin at levels 10-15 times higher than the amount needed for good health. Large doses taken by mouth even for a short time can cause stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Taken longer, it can cause anemia and decrease the levels of your good cholesterol. We do not know if high levels of zinc affect reproduction in humans. Rats that were fed large amounts of zinc became infertile.
Inhaling large amounts of zinc (as dusts or fumes) can cause a specific short-term disease called metal fume fever. We do not know the long-term effects of breathing high levels of zinc.
Putting low levels of zinc acetate and zinc chloride on the skin of rabbits, guinea pigs, and mice caused skin irritation. Skin irritation will probably occur in people.
The Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have not classified zinc for carcinogenicity. Based on incomplete information from human and animal studies, the EPA has determined that zinc is not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.
The EPA recommends that drinking water should contain no more than 5 milligrams per liter of water (5 mg/L) because of taste. The EPA requires that any release of 1,000 pounds (or in some cases 5,000 pounds) into the environment be reported to the agency.
To protect workers, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set an average limit of 1 mg/m3 for zinc chloride fumes and 5 mg/m3 for zinc oxide (dusts and fumes) in workplace air during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
Similarly, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set the same standards for up to a 10-hour workday over a 40-hour workweek.
Selenium has both beneficial and harmful effects. Low doses of selenium are needed to maintain good health. However, exposure to high levels can cause adverse health effects. Short-term oral exposure to high concentrations of selenium may cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Chronic oral exposure to high concentrations of selenium compounds can produce a disease called selenosis. The major signs of selenosis are hair loss, nail brittleness, and neurological abnormalities (such as numbness and other odd sensations in the extremities).
Brief exposures to high levels of elemental selenium or selenium dioxide in air can result in respiratory tract irritation, bronchitis, difficulty breathing, and stomach pains. Longer-term exposure to either of these air-borne forms can cause respiratory irritation, bronchial spasms, and coughing. Levels of these forms of selenium that would be necessary to produce such effects are normally not seen outside of the workplace.
Animal studies have shown that very high amounts of selenium can affect sperm production and the female reproductive cycle. We do not know if similar effects would occur in humans.
Studies of laboratory animals and people show that most selenium compounds probably do not cause cancer. In fact, studies in humans suggest that lower-than-normal selenium levels in the diet might increase the risk of cancer.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that selenium and selenium compounds are not classifiable as to their carcinogenicity to humans.
The EPA has determined that one specific form of selenium, selenium sulfide, is a probable human carcinogen. Selenium sulfide is not present in foods and is a very different chemical from the organic and inorganic selenium compounds found in foods and in the environment.
The EPA restricts the amount of selenium allowed in public water supplies to 50 parts total selenium per billion parts of water (50 ppb).
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets a limit of 0.2 mg selenium/m3 of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift.
ATSDR and the EPA have determined that 5 micrograms of selenium per kilogram of body weight taken daily would not be expected to cause any adverse health effects over a lifetime of such intake.
Discussion of iron toxicity in this protocol is limited to ingested or environmental exposure. Iron overload disease (hemochromatosis), an inherited disorder, is discussed in a separate protocol. Iron does not appear on the ATSDR's "Top 20 List," but it is a heavy metal of concern, particularly because ingesting dietary iron supplements may acutely poison young children (e.g., as few as five to nine 30-mg iron tablets for a 30-lb child).
Ingestion accounts for most of the toxic effects of iron because iron is absorbed rapidly in the gastrointestinal tract. The corrosive nature of iron seems to further increase the absorption. Most overdoses appear to be the result of children mistaking red-coated ferrous sulfate tablets or adult multivitamin preparations for candy. (Fatalities from overdoses have decreased significantly with the introduction of child-proof packaging. In recent years, blister packaging and the requirement that containers with 250 mg or more of iron have child-proof bottle caps have helped reduce accidental ingestion and overdose of iron tablets by children.) Other sources of iron are drinking water, iron pipes, and cookware. Target organs are the liver, cardiovascular system, and kidneys (Roberts 1999).
Exposure to antimony at high levels can result in a variety of adverse health effects.
Breathing high levels for a long time can irritate your eyes and lungs and can cause heart and lung problems, stomach pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and stomach ulcers.
In short-term studies, animals that breathed very high levels of antimony died. Animals that breathed high levels had lung, heart, liver, and kidney damage. In long-term studies, animals that breathed very low levels of antimony had eye irritation, hair loss, lung damage, and heart problems. Problems with fertility were also noted. In animal studies, problems with fertility have been seen when rats breathed very high levels of antimony for a few months.
Ingesting large doses of antimony can cause vomiting. We don't know what other effects may be caused by ingesting it. Long-term animal studies have reported liver damage and blood changes when animals ingested antimony. Antimony can irritate the skin if it is left on it.
Antimony can have beneficial effects when used for medical reasons. It has been used as a medicine to treat people infected with parasites.
The Department of Health and Human Services, the International Agency for Research on Cancer, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have not classified antimony as to its human carcinogenicity.
Lung cancer has been observed in some studies of rats that breathed high levels of antimony. No human studies are available. We don't know whether antimony will cause cancer in people.
The EPA allows 0.006 parts of antimony per million parts of drinking water (0.006 ppm). The EPA requires that discharges or spills into the environment of 5,000 pounds or more of antimony be reported.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set an occupational exposure limit of 0.5 milligrams of antimony per cubic meter of air (0.5 mg/m³) for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) currently recommend the same guidelines for the workplace as OSHA.
Exposure to high levels of silver for a long period of time may result in a condition called arygria, a blue-gray discoloration of the skin and other body tissues. Lower-level exposures to silver may also cause silver to be deposited in the skin and other parts of the body; however, this is not known to be harmful. Argyria is a permanent effect, but it appears to be a cosmetic problem that may not be otherwise harmful to health.
Exposure to high levels of silver in the air has resulted in breathing problems, lung and throat irritation, and stomach pains. Skin contact with silver can cause mild allergic reactions such as rash, swelling, and inflammation in some people.
Animal studies have shown that swallowing silver results in the deposit of silver in the skin. One study in mice found that the animals exposed to silver in drinking water were less active than unexposed animals.
No studies are available on whether silver affects reproduction or causes developmental problems in people.
No studies are available on whether silver may cause cancer in people. The only available animal studies showed both positive and negative results when silver was implanted under the skin.
The EPA has determined that silver is not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity.
The EPA recommends that the concentration of silver in drinking water not exceed 0.10 milligrams per liter of water (0.10 mg/L) because of the skin discoloration that may occur.
The EPA requires that spills or accidental releases of 1,000 pounds or more of silver be reported to the EPA.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) limits silver in workplace air to 0.01 milligrams per cubic meter (0.01 mg/m³) for an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) also recommends that workplace air contain no more that 0.01 mg/m³ silver.
The American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) recommends that workplace air contain no more than 0.1 mg/m³ silver metal and 0.01 mg/m³ soluble silver compounds.
The federal recommendations have been updated as of July 1999.
Cobalt can benefit or harm human health. Cobalt is beneficial for humans because it is part of vitamin B12.
Exposure to high levels of cobalt can result in lung and heart effects and dermatitis. Liver and kidney effects have also been observed in animals exposed to high levels of cobalt.
Exposure to large amounts of radiation from radioactive cobalt can damage cells in your body from the radiation. You might also experience acute radiation syndrome that includes nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, bleeding, coma, and even death. This would be a rare event. Nonradioactive cobalt has not been found to cause cancer in humans or animals following exposure in food or water. Cancer has been shown, however, in animals that breathed cobalt or when cobalt was placed directly into the muscle or under the skin. Based on the laboratory animal data, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has determined that cobalt and cobalt compounds are possibly carcinogenic to humans.
Exposure to high levels of cobalt radiation can cause changes in the genetic materials within cells and may result in the development of some types of cancer.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a limit of 0.1 milligrams of nonradioactive cobalt per cubic meter of workplace air (0.1 mg/m3) for an 8-hour workday and 40-hour work week.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission limits radioactive cobalt in workplace air to 1x10-5 microcurie per milliliter (µCi/mL) for 57Co and 7x10-8 µCi/mL for 60Co. EPA has set an average annual drinking water limit of 1000 picocurie per liter (pCi/L) for 57Co or 100 pCi/L for 60Co so the public radiation dose will not exceed 4 millirem.
